Joined in 2023 
82 
63 About this deal
Sensitivity assessment: Sepia officinalis appear to be able to survive at low temperatures but suffer mortality after prolonged exposure to 10°C or lower. However, as temperatures decrease in coastal waters individuals may be expected to retreat to deeper waters, with the development of eggs and recruitment potentially affected. Therefore, resistance is scored as ‘ Medium’. Resilience is likely to be ‘ Medium’ and sensitivity is, therefore ‘ Medium’. Benchmark.‘Heavy’ deposition of up to 30 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail Kent Wildlife Trust, 2018.Kent Wildlife Trust Shoresearch Intertidal Survey 2004 onwards.Occurrence dataset: https://www.kentwildlifetrust.org.uk/ accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-10-01. Environmental Records Information Centre North East, 2018.ERIC NE Combined dataset to 2017. Occurrence dataset: http://www.ericnortheast.org.ukl accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-09-38 Benchmark. Exposure to dissolved oxygen concentration of less than or equal to 2 mg/l for oneweek (a change from WFD poor status to bad status). Further detail
Mating.Mating occurs in deeper water. Mate choice occurs in female Sepia officinalis and appears to be a preference, not for dominance, but for the absence of zebra banding. This might be because zebra branding infers aggression in the male (Boal, 1997). Males carry up to 1400 spermatophores and females 150-4000 eggs depending on their size. Spermatophores are placed in the female’s buccal membrane located above the mouth (Guerra, 2006). A single pair can mate several times and males have been observed to guard their mate post-insemination (Hanlon et al., 1999). Females are polyandrous and can accept and store sperm from multiple males, and can control which sperm to fertilize her eggs (Naud et al., 2005). This is referred to as the ‘cryptic female choice hypothesis’ (Eberhard, 1996). More food was consumed by sexually mature females than non-sexually mature females and mature males suggesting a higher demand (Castro & Guerra, 1999). Nixon, M., 1985. Capture of prey, diet and feeding of Sepia officinalis and Octopus vulgaris (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) from hatching to adult. Vie et Milieu, 35(3/4), 255-261. Adult Sepia officinalis are able to survive in salinities of 18 PSU but only if acclimatised slowly (Guerra & Castro, 1988). However, adults are sufficiently mobile and are able to move to a new area if conditions are unfavourable. Juveniles are thought to have a higher plasticity to changes in salinity allowing them to live in more sheltered lagoons with higher freshwater influxes (Paulij et al., 1990). However, normal embryonic development requires salinities above 24 ppt (Paulij et al., 1990). Below 22.4 PSU malformed embryos were observed and the development rate of embryos was reduced even at 28.7 PSU. This is due to an increase in osmotic stress and a resultant reduction in available energy reserves (Paulij et al., 1990). The highest percentage of healthy hatchlings was found at salinities of 29.8 PSU (Paulij et al., 1990). Therefore, in culture, the optimum working salinity range is 27 – 35 PSU (Sykes et al., 2006(b)).Hanlon, R. T. & Messenger, J. B., 1996. Cephalopod Behaviour.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Benchmark.A permanent or temporary barrier to species movement over ≥50% of water body width or a 10% change in tidal excursion. Further detail
In many areas, Sepia officinalis is fished at the maximum sustainable rate but in others, there has been a recent decline in captures in heavily fished areas. It is the most abundant cephalopod species fished in the North East Atlantic with annual landings ranging from 40,000-50,000 (ICES, 2009). The UK cuttlefish landings for UK vessels in 2015 was ca. 6000 tonnes (MMO, 2016; cited in ICES, 2017(b)). The primary mode of fishing is trawling but cuttlefish are also caught by artisanal fisheries using pots and traps (ICES, 2003). The peak inshore fishing season, unfortunately, coincides with the peak spawning period meaning adults have a limited time to reproduce and replenish the subsequent population before they are fished (ICES, 2003). Benchmark.Damage to surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail Sensitivity assessment. The species has well-developed eyes so can detect movement sufficiently well to be susceptible to visual disturbance. However, the species will swim away or hide when any presence threatens, therefore,recovery is immediate. Visual cues may cause a behavioural response but due to the mobility of the species, the pressure is unlikely to cause mortality or interfere with reproduction. Hence, resistance is ‘ High’, resilience is ‘ High’, and the species is likely to be ‘ Not sensitive’.
StatPearls [Internet].
Bettencourt, V. & Guerra, A., 1999. Carbon- and oxygen-isotope composition of the cuttlebone of Sepia officinalis: a tool for predicting ecological information? Marine Biology, 133, 651-657. Harms, C.A., Lewbart, G.A., McAlarney, R., Christian, L.S., Geissler, K. & Lemons, C., 2006. Surgical Excision of Mycotic ( Cladosporium sp.) Granulomas from the Mantle of a Cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 37, 524-530. Rodhouse, P.G.K., Pierce, G.J., Nichols, O.C., Sauer, W.H.H., Arkhipkin, A.I., Laptikhovsky, V.V., Lipiński, M.R., Ramos, J.E., Gras, M., Kidokoro, H., Sadayasu, K., Pereira, J., Lefkaditou, E., Pita, C., Gasalla, M., Haimovici, M., Sakai, M. & Downey, N., 2014. Environmental Effects on Cephalopod Population Dynamics: Implications for Management of Fisheries. In Vidal, E.A.G. (ed.) Advances in Marine Biology, 64, 99-233. Gutowska, M.A. & Melzner, F., 2009. Abiotic conditions in cephalopod ( Sepia officinalis) eggs: embryonic development at low pH and high pCO 2. Marine Biology, 156, 515-519. There is evidence of gene flow between the English Channel and southern North Sea populations probably due to the mobility of this species. However, there is also clear genetic differences between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations (Wolfram et al., 2006).
Embryonic development.Eggs are flask-shaped, coated in ink from the mother and approximately 3-4 cm in length (Boletzky, 1983). As well as acting as a protective barrier, the egg capsule can also protect against environmental stress and microbial infection (Catarina et al., 2017). Bacteria also live inside the egg and provide antifouling and antimicrobial properties alongside a yolk supplying nutrients. Sepia officinalis eggs are one of the largest among cephalopods (Challier et al., 2005). Egg development can last from 1 to 5 months depending on the water temperature (Catarina et al., 2017). At 12°C development took 5 months in culture with development ceasing at temperatures below 9°C. However, once temperatures were increased embryogenesis restarted (Bouchaud & Daguzan, 1990, Challier et al., 2004). Eggs cultured at 15°C appeared to use 41% of the egg yolk for growth and 10% for respiration and excretion. Eggs cultured at 24°C, however, used only 15% of the egg yolk for growth and used 52% for respiration and excretion. Therefore, Sepia officinalis hatched at 24°C were almost half the size of hatchlings grown in 15°C. All the eggs were from the same mother and were around the same size of 23 cm (Bouchaud, 1991). The optimal temperature for embryonic development is 15-18°C (Bouchaud, 1991). Maternal health and nutritional history are also known to influence the size and success of offspring (Steer et al., 2004, cited in Bloor et al., 2013). Catarina et al. (2017) reported that S epia officinalis' eggs are predated by; “the snail Bolinus brandaris, the crab Cancer pagurus, the hermit crab Dardanus arrosor, the lobster Homarus gammarus, the invasive blue crab Callinectes sapidus, the shrimp Squilla mantis, the sea urchins Echinus melo, Cidaris sp. and Paracentrotus lividus, and the starfish Astropecten aranciacus”.The egg capsules become thinner and lose their ink making them more transparent towards the end of embryonic development. In this last stage, the eggs are most vulnerable to predation (Catarina et al., 2017). Oxygen also becomes limiting towards the end of embryonic development as both oxygen consumption and ammonia production are at their highest within the egg capsule (Lesser, 2010). In inshore French waters, Sepia officinalis is harvested bytraps that selectively remove males prior to reproduction, trawls that capture a high percentage of females and juveniles, and nets that capture an even ratio of adult males and females (du Sel et al., 1997). Females have been shown to mate with multiple males meaning a reduction in males may not affect the fecundity of the population drastically. South East Wales Biodiversity Records Centre, 2018. SEWBReC Molluscs (South East Wales). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/jos5ga accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02. Sensitivity assessment. Sepia officinalis are able to undergo habituation to the sound but may change their behaviour, including mating behaviour. Internal damage has been caused by specific noise levels, meaning, the resistance to this pressure is probably ‘Medium’ albeit with ‘low’ confidence. Hence, resilience is probably ‘ Medium’, and sensitivity has been assessed as ‘Medium’.
Blanc, A., du Sel, P. & Daguzan, J., 1998. Habitat and diet of early stages of Sepia officinalis L. (Cephalopoda) in Morbihan Bay, France. Journal of Molluscan Studies, 64, 263-274. Lower circalittoral, Lower infralittoral, Sublittoral fringe, Upper circalittoral, Upper infralittoral
Great Deal 
New Comment